PHARMACOLOGY
SECTION A - GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY
- PHARMACODYNAMICS
1.General Instructional Objective
2.A general understanding of how drugs work and how their actions may be modified. An understanding of the clinical application of this knowledge
3.Required Abilities
4.To explain the concept of drug action with respect to:receptor theoryenzyme interactions physico-chemical interactions
5.To explain receptor activity with regard to: ionic fluxessecond messengers and G proteins nucleic acid synthesis evidence for the presence of receptors regulation of receptor number and activity
6.To define and explain dose-effect relationships of drugs with reference to: graded and quantal response therapeutic index potency and efficacy competitive and non-competitive antagonists partial agonists, mixed agonist-antagonists and inverse agonists
7.To describe efficacy and potency with reference to dose-response curves
8.To explain the Law of Mass Action and describe affinity and dissociation constants
9.To describe the theories of mechanism of action of general anaesthetic agents
10.To describe the mechanisms of adverse drug effects
- PHARMACOKINETICS
1. General Instructional Objective
An understanding of the fate of drugs in the body and how this may be affected by physiological and pathological disturbance
An understanding of the clinical application of this knowledge
2. Required Abilities
a. To explain the concept of pharmacokinetic modeling of single and multiple compartment models and define:
half-life clearance zero and first order kinetics volume of distribution bio-availability area under the plasma concentration time curve extraction ratio
b.
To describe absorption and factors that will influence it with reference to clinically utilised sites of administration
c.
To describe factors influencing the distribution of drugs (e.g. protein binding, lipid solubility, pH, pKa) and their alteration in physiological and pathological disturbance
d.
To describe the mechanisms of drug clearance and how physiological and pathological disturbance may effect these
e.
To describe the mechanisms of non-hepatic and hepatic metabolism of drugs. To describe Phase 1 and Phase 2 reactions, hepatic extraction ratio and its significance, first pass effect, enzyme induction and inhibition
f.
To explain and apply concepts related to intravenous and infusion kinetics. To describe the concepts of effect-site and effect-site equilibration time and their clinical applications. To describe the concept of context sensitive half time and its clinical applications
g.
To calculate loading and maintenance dosage regimens
h.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of drugs administered in the epidural and subarachnoid space
i.
To explain clinical drug monitoring with regard to peak and trough concentrations, minimum therapeutic concentration and toxicity
III - VARIABILITY IN DRUG RESPONSE
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the factors that may alter inter- and intra-individual drug responses and the significance of this as applied in anaesthetic practice
3.Required Abilities
4.To define tachyphylaxis, tolerance, addiction, dependence and idiosyncrasy
5.To describe mechanisms of tolerance
6.To describe alterations to drug response due to physiological change with special reference to neonates, the elderly and pregnancy
7.To describe alterations to drug response due to pathological disturbance with special reference to cardiac, respiratory, renal and hepatic disease
8.To classify and describe adverse drug effects
9.To classify and describe mechanisms of drug interaction
10.To explain the mechanisms and significance of pharmacogenetic disorders such as malignant hyperpyrexia, porphyria, atypical cholinesterase and disturbance of cytochrome function
11.To describe immune mechanisms which may result in reactions to drugs, intravenous fluids and latex. To describe the management of anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions
IV - PHARMACEUTICAL ASPECTS AND DRUG DEVELOPMENT
1.General Instructional Objective
2.An appreciation of how drugs are developed, formulated and the importance of additives in drugs
3.Required Abilities
4.To define shelf-life and outline factors that may influence drug potency during storage
5.To describe methods of preserving shelf-life of drugs.
6.To describe the mechanisms of action and potential adverse effects of buffers, anti-oxidants, anti-microbial and solubilizing agents added to drugs
7.To outline the variations in generic nomenclature of commonly used drugs (e.g. epinephrine/adrenaline, lidocaine/lignocaine)
8.To define isomerism and provide a classification with examples. To describe the clinical importance of isomerism
9.To describe the processes by which new drugs are approved for research and clinical use in Australia, and to outline the phases of human drug trials (phase I-IV)
SECTION B - PHARMACOLOGY OF DRUGS USED IN ANAESTHESIA, INTENSIVE CARE AND PAIN MEDICINE
- INHALATIONAL ANAESTHETIC AGENTS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pharmacology of the inhalational anaesthetic agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the uptake, distribution and elimination of inhalational anaesthetic agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the pharmacological differences between these agents and the clinical importance of these differences
2. Required Abilities
a.
To describe the principles of vaporization of inhalational agents
b.
To explain the concepts of partition coefficients, concentration effect and second gas effect
c.
To describe the relationships between inhaled and alveolar concentration. To describe the factors that affect this and their clinical importance
d.
To explain the significance of the distribution of cardiac output and tissue partition coefficients on uptake and distribution of volatile agents
e.
To describe factors that affect recovery from inhalational anaesthesia. To compare induction and recovery
f.
To describe the properties of an ideal inhalational anaesthetic agent
g.
To describe the structure-activity relationships of inhalational agents
h.
To describe the pharmacology of nitrous oxide. To give a detailed account of its potential adverse effects
i.
To describe the comparative pharmacology of nitrous oxide, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane, xenon and ether
j.
To describe the cardiovascular effects of the inhalational agents
k.
To describe the central nervous system effects of the inhalational agents
l.
To describe the respiratory effects of the inhalational agents
m.
To describe the toxicity of the inhalational agents
- INTRAVENOUS ANAESTHETIC AGENTS
1. General Instructional Objective
An understanding of the pharmacology of the intravenous anaesthetic agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the pharmacological differences between these agents and the clinical importance of these differences
2. Required Abilities
a.
To describe the properties of an ideal intravenous induction agent
b.
To describe the formulations of thiopentone, propofol, midazolam and ketamine
c.
To describe the central nervous system effects and proposed mechanisms of action of the intravenous anaesthetic agents
d.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of the intravenous anaesthetic agents. To compare the pharmacokinetics and the clinical implications of these differences
e.
To describe total intravenous anaesthesia with reference to the underlying pharmacological principles
f.
To describe the factors which affect recovery from intravenous anaesthesia.
g.
To describe the pharmacodynamics of propofol, thiopentone, midazolam, ketamine and etomidate. Provide a detailed account of the cardiovascular and respiratory effects of these agents
h.
To describe the adverse effects of individual agents
i.
To outline how physiological and pathological disturbance can alter the pharmacology of the intravenous anaesthetic agents
III - LOCAL ANAESTHETIC DRUGS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pharmacology of the local anaesthetic agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the pharmacological differences between these agents and the clinical importance of these differences
2. Required Abilities
a.
To describe the structure-activity relationships of local anaesthetic drugs
b.
To describe the mechanisms of action of local anaesthetic drugs
c.
To describe the formulations of local anaesthetics and their clinical importance
d.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetics and potential alterations with physiological and pathological disturbance
e.
To describe the pharmacodynamics of the local anaesthetics with particular reference to the neuronal, central nervous system and cardiovascular effects
f.
To explain the factors that determine the clinical effects of local anaesthetic drugs
g.
To compare the pharmacology of the local anaesthetics with particular reference to lignocaine, prilocaine, bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, ropivacaine, cocaine and procaine
h.
To describe local anaesthetic toxicity. To describe its prevention and management
IV - PAIN
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the basic physiological mechanisms involved in peripheral nociception, conduction, spinal cord modulation and central processing of pain
An understanding of the pharmacological agents used to provide acute and chronic pain relief
2. Required Abilities
a.
To define pain
b.
To describe pain pathways and mediators involved in nociception. To describe peripheral and central sensitization, gate control theory, preemptive and preventive analgesia
c.
To describe the pharmacology as pertaining to pain management of:
opioids tramadol local anaesthetic agents NSAIDs paracetamol NMDA antagonists anticonvulsants antidepressants corticosteroids inhalational analgesics - nitrous oxide, methoxyflurane
d. To describe the different modes of administration of analgesic agents and evaluate their clinical applications
- OPIOID AGONISTS AND ANTAGONISTS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pharmacology of the opioid agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the pharmacological differences between these agents and their clinical implications
2. Required Abilities and Attitudes
a.
To describe opioid receptors
b.
To describe the mechanisms of action of opioids
c.
To describe the actions of agonists, partial agonists, mixed agonists-antagonists and antagonists
d.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of different routes of administration and the clinical implications with reference to intravenous, oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, transdermal and patient controlled administration
e.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of intravenous opioids and their clinical applications with particular reference to morphine, fentanyl, alfentanil and remifentanil
f.
To describe the pharmacology of opioids deposited in the epidural space or cerebrospinal fluid
g.
To provide a detailed account of the pharmacodynamics of individual opioids and their clinical applications with particular reference to morphine, pethidine, codeine, fentanyl, alfentanil, remifentanil, sufentanil, codeine, methadone and oxycodone
h.
To describe the adverse effects of opioids. To describe the prevention and management of these adverse effects
i.
To describe the potential adverse drug interactions between opioids and other agents
j.
To describe the pharmacology of opioid antagonists
VI - NON-STEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
1.General Instructional Objective
2.An understanding of the role of the prostaglandin pathway in the production of pain and the modulation of this pathway to provide pain relief
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the eicosanoid pathway and the physiological role of prostaglandins
5.To classify the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
6.To describe the pharmacology of paracetamol and its toxicity
7.To describe the pharmacology of aspirin and its adverse effects
8.To outline the pharmacology of the non-selective COX inhibitors
9.To outline the pharmacology of the selective COX 2 inhibitors
10.To describe the adverse effects of the NSAIDS
11.To describe the pharmacology of the injectable NSAIDS (ketorolac, diclofenac and parecoxib)
VII - NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pharmacology of neuromuscular blocking agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
An understanding of the pharmacological differences between these agents and the clinical importance of these differences
2. Required Abilities
a.
To explain the physiology of neuromuscular transmission and how this may be interfered with to produce muscle relaxation
b.
To describe depolarizing and non-depolarising block
c.
To describe the post-junctional and pre-junctional receptors
d.
To outline the properties of an ideal neuromuscular blocking agent
e.
To describe and evaluate different methods of monitoring the neuromuscular junction
f.
To give a detailed account of the pharmacology of suxamethonium including its undesirable properties
g.
To describe the pharmacokinetics of the neuromuscular blocking agents. To describe the clinical implications of the pharmacokinetic differences
h.
To describe the pharmacodynamics of the non-depolarising muscle relaxants with particular reference to cisatracurium, atracurium, rocuronium, vecuronium, mivacurium and pancuronium
i.
To describe the physiological and pathological factors that may modify responses to muscle relaxants
j.
To describe the adverse effects of muscle relaxants
k.
To describe the physiological and pathological factors which may effect recovery from neuromuscular blockade
VIII - ANTICHOLINESTERASE DRUGS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the pharmacology of anticholinesterase drugs and their clinical applications
3.Required Abilities
4.To classify the anti-cholinesterase drugs in relation to mechanism of action
5.To compare and contrast the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of neostigmine, edrophonium, pyridostigmine and physostigmine
6.To describe the adverse effects of anticholinesterase agents
7.To outline the effects and treatment of poisoning with organophosphate compounds
IX - ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the pharmacology of the anticholinergic drugs and their clinical applications
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the pharmacology of acetylcholine and the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors
5.To compare and contrast the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of atropine, hyoscine and glycopyrrolate
6.To describe the effects of overdosage of anti-cholinergic drugs and its management
- PHARMACOLOGY OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiology and pharmacology of the autonomic nervous system An understanding of the clinical application of this knowledge
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the physiological roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
5.To describe the physiological actions of adrenergic, cholinergic, and dopaminergic receptors including the subtypes and their cellular effects
6.To describe the synthesis, fate and release of adrenergic and cholinergic transmitters
7.To describe the structure activity relationships of adrenergic and cholinergic agents
8.To compare and contrast the mechanism of action and effects of sympathomimetic and cholinomimetic agents used clinically
9.To describe pharmacology of the alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1 and beta 2 adrenergic agonists and their clinical applications
10.To describe clinically important drug interactions with the autonomic nervous system
XI - ADRENOCEPTOR BLOCKING AGENTS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological consequences of alpha and beta receptor blocking agents as well as their detailed pharmacology
3.Required Abilities
4.To explain mechanisms and physiological consequences of alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1 and beta 2 receptor blockade
5.To classify alpha and beta receptor blocking agents according to their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties
6.To describe the pharmacology of alpha receptor blocking agents and apply this to their clinical use
7.To describe the pharmacology of beta blockers with particular reference to propanolol, atenolol, metoprolol, esmolol, carvedilol, sotalol and labetalol
8.To describe the clinical uses of beta receptor blocking agents and their potential adverse effects
XII - ANTI-HYPERTENSIVE DRUGS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the pharmacology of anti-hypertensive agents and the clinical application of this knowledge
3.Required Abilities
4.To classify the mechanisms of action of the anti-hypertensive agents
5.To describe the pharmacology of centrally acting agents such as clonidine and alpha-methyl dopa
6.To outline the actions of ganglion blocking agents
7.To describe the pharmacology of agents which act at the adrenergic nerve ending
8.To describe the pharmacology of alpha and beta blockers with reference to the management of hypertension
9.To describe the physiology and pharmacology of the vascular endothelium and smooth muscle with particular reference to nitric oxide
10.To describe the pharmacology of calcium antagonists with reference to the management of hypertension
11.To describe in detail the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of sodium nitroprusside and glyceryl trinitrate including their adverse effects
12.To describe the pharmacology of the ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor antagonists with reference to the management of hypertension
13.To outline the pharmacology of hydrallazine and the potassium channel activators (nicorandil and minoxidil)
XIII - ANTI-ARRHYTHMIC DRUGS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the physiological and pharmacological basis of antiarrhythmic therapy
An understanding of the pharmacology of antiarrhythmic agents and their clinical applications
2. Required Abilities
a.
To classify antiarrhythmic agents by their electro-physiological activity and mechanisms of action
b.
To describe the pharmacology of the sodium channel blocking agents with particular reference to lignocaine and flecainide
c.
To describe the pharmacology of the beta blockers with reference to their antiarrhythmic properties
d.
To describe the pharmacology of the potassium channel blockers with particular reference to amiodarone, sotalol and ibutilide
e.
To describe the pharmacology of the calcium antagonists with reference to their antiarrhythmic properties
f.
To describe the pharmacology of digoxin with reference to its antiarrhythmic properties
g.
To describe the pharmacology of adenosine with reference to its antiarrhythmic properties
h.
To describe the pharmacology of magnesium with reference to its antiarrhythmic properties
i.
To describe the adverse effects of the anti-arrhythmic agents with particular reference to the potential pro-arrhythmic properties
XIV - THERAPY OF CARDIAC ARREST, ISCHAEMIA AND FAILURE
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pathophysiology and therapy of cardiac arrest,
myocardial ischaemia and cardiac failure
2. Required Abilities
a.
To describe the international cardiopulmonary resuscitation guidelines
b.
To describe the role of defibrillation and its potential benefits and risks during cardiac arrest
c.
To describe the pharmacology of adrenaline, vasopressin, amiodarone and lignocaine with reference to cardiopulmonary resuscitation
d.
To describe the pharmacology of drugs used to manage myocardial ischaemia/infarction with particular reference to nitrates, beta blockers, calcium antagonists, anti-platelet agents, anti-coagulants and fibrinolytic agents
e.
To describe the pharmacology of drugs used to manage acute or chronic cardiac failure with particular reference to sympathomimetics, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, digoxin, diuretics, ACE inhibitors, nitrates and beta blockers
XV - NEUROPHARMACOLOGY
1.General Instructional Objectives An understanding of the pharmacology of neurotransmitters and their receptors An understanding of the pharmacology of anxiolytic, hypnotic, anti-depressant,
2.anti-psychotic, anti-convulsant, anti-parkinsonian and anti-migraine medication
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the physiology and pharmacology of neurotransmitters and their receptors with particular reference to GABA, excitatory amino acids, acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin
5.To describe the pharmacology of anxiolytic/hypnotic agents with particular reference to benzodiazepenes and barbiturates
6.To describe the comparative pharmacology of the benzodiazepines with particular reference to midazolam, diazepam, lorazepam and flumazenil
7.To outline the pharmacology of the antidepressant medications and their adverse effects. To describe the potential adverse drug interactions with these agents
8.To outline the pharmacology of antipsychotic medication
9.To outline the mechanisms of action and pharmacology of the anticonvulsants drugs
10.To outline the pharmacology of the antiparkinsonian drugs
11.To outline the pharmacology of drugs used to treat migraine
XVI - ANTI-EMETIC DRUGS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological basis of vomiting and the pharmacological basis of anti-emetic drugs
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of dopamine antagonists, anti-cholinergic agents, serotonin antagonists, anti-histamines and steroids
5.To critically appraise the clinical usage of these drugs
XVII - RESPIRATORY PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTIC GASES
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the pharmacological management of asthma and pulmonary hypertension
An understanding of the pharmacology of oxygen and nitric oxide and their clinical applications
2. Required Abilities
a.
To describe the pharmacology of anti-asthma drugs with particular reference to beta 2 agonists, corticosteroids, anticholinergics, leukotriene antagonists and theophylline
b.
To outline the pharmacology of drugs used to treat pulmonary hypertension
c.
To describe the pharmacology of oxygen including its manufacture and adverse effects
d.
To describe the pharmacology of nitric oxide with particular reference to its inhaled use
XVIII - HISTAMINE AND SEROTONIN
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the pharmacology of histamine, serotonin and the agents acting at these receptors
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the roles of histamine and serotonin receptor subtypes
5.To outline the pharmacology of histamine antagonists
6.To outline the pharmacology of drugs acting via effects on serotonin or serotonin receptors
XIX - DIURETICS
1.General Instructional Objectives An understanding of diuretics and their clinical implications
2.Required Abilities
3.To outline a physiological basis of classifying diuretics related to their site of action
4.To describe the actions of mannitol, frusemide, thiazides, aldosterone antagonists and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
5.To outline the side-effects of the diuretics
6.To describe the major applications and toxicities of thiazides, loop diuretics and potassium-sparing diuretics
XX - DRUGS AND COAGULATION
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological basis of clotting and thrombolysis and the application of this knowledge to the pharmacology of anti-coagulants, anti-platelet drugs, thrombolytic agents and anti-fibrinolytic agents
3.Required Abilities
4.To classify the anti-coagulants
5.To describe the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of heparin and low molecular weight heparins including their side-effects
6.To describe the mode of action and side effects of protamine
7.To describe the pharmacology of warfarin
8.To classify and describe the pharmacology of anti-platelet drugs
9.To describe the fibrinolytic pathway and outline the pharmacology of the thrombolytic agents
10.To outline the pharmacology of antifibrinolytic agents such as epsilon aminocaproic acid, tranexamic acid and aprotinin
XXI - OBSTETRIC PHARMACOLOGY
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological changes in pregnancy and their pharmacological implications An understanding of the pharmacology of drugs used in pregnancy
3.Required Abilities
4.To explain the physiological consequences of pregnancy and its pharmacological implications
5.To describe the pharmacology of oxytocic agents with special reference to oxytocin derivatives, ergot derivatives and prostaglandins
6.To describe the pharmacology of tocolytic agents with particular reference to beta 2 agonists, calcium antagonists, magnesium, inhalational anaesthetics, nitrates and NSAIDS
7.c. To explain the factors which influence the transfer of drugs across the placenta to the fetus
8.To outline the potential effects on the fetus and neonate of drugs administered during pregnancy
9.To outline the potential effects on the neonate of drug administration in association with lactation
XXII- ENDOCRINE PHARMACOLOGY
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological and pharmacological basis of drugs used in endocrine disorders
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the pharmacology of insulin preparations and their use
5.To outline the pharmacology of the oral hypoglycaemic agents
6.To outline the mode of action and side-effects of thyroid hormones and anti-thyroid drugs
7.To describe the pharmacology of steroid drugs and their adverse effects
8.To outline the pharmacology of glucagon
9.To describe the pharmacology of vasopressin and its analogues
XXIII - GASTROINTESTINAL PHARMACOLOGY
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiology of gastric physiology and its pharmacological manipulation
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the pharmacology of the non-particulate and particulate antacids
5.To describe the pharmacology of the histamine 2 antagonists
6.To describe the pharmacology of the proton pump inhibitors
7.To outline the pharmacology of misoprostol and sucralfate
XXIV - INTRAVENOUS FLUIDS
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the physiological basis of the use of colloids and crystalloids as intravenous fluids
3.Required Abilities
4.To describe the composition, pH, and osmolality of crystalloids and colloids used in clinical practice
5.To evaluate their effects and fate when used in volume replacement
6.To compare the pharmacology of colloids such as albumin, gelatin derivatives, polysaccharide derivatives and starch solutions with crystalloids such as lactate solutions and normal saline
XXV - PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF POISONING
1.General Instructional Objectives
2.An understanding of the general principles of treating poisoning and the pharmacology of specific treatments
3.Required Abilities
4.To outline methods which decrease absorption and enhance drug elimination such as activated charcoal, emetic agents, gastric lavage, haemodialysis and charcoal haemoperfusion
5.To describe the physiological effects and management of overdosage of agents such as paracetamol, aspirin, tricyclic anti-depressants, sedatives, cyanide, digoxin, and organophosphates
XXVI - CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC DRUGS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of the general principles of treating infections and the pharmacology of specific antimicrobials
An understanding of the principles of cancer chemotherapy and potential adverse effects
2. Required Abilities
a.
To outline the pharmacology of antimicrobial drugs
b.
To outline the interactions between antimicrobial and drugs used peri-operatively
c.
To explain the principles of antibiotic prophylaxis
d.
To outline the pharmacology of antiseptics and disinfectants
e.
To outline the pharmacology of antiviral agents
f.
To outline the pharmacology of antifungal agents
g.
To outline the pharmacology of cancer chemotherapeutic agents with particular reference to problems in the peri-operative period
SECTION C - STATISTICS
1. General Instructional Objectives
An understanding of scientific method and its application in research, including the appropriate use of statistical notation and tests
The demonstration of the capacity to critically evaluate published research reports
2. Required Abilities
a. To describe the stages in the design of a clinical trial, taking into account
the
research question and hypothesis
literature review
statistical advice
ideal study protocol to minimise the risk of bias and to achieve
optimum power of the study ethical issues and informed consent data collection and processing
b.
To explain the concepts in statistics such as distribution of data and frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and dispersion of data, and the appropriate selection and application of non-parametric and parametric tests in statistical inference
c.
To explain the principles of errors of statistical inference and describe techniques to minimise such errors through good study design
d.
Have an understanding of sources of bias and confounding in medical research and methods available that can reduce such bias
e.
To describe the features of a diagnostic test, including the concepts of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value and how these are affected by the prevalence of the disease in question
f.
To describe the various statistical methods used to estimate risk
g.
To describe the features of evidence-based medicine, including levels of evidence, meta-analysis and systematic review